Glossary of Human Performance Technology Terms
A
Accomplishment- A result or outcome of behaviors (Rothwell, 2007).
ADDIE- Acronym for “Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation”, core components or steps of instructional design. ADDIE or the “ADDIE model” often refers to using a systematic process to design instruction (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012).
Adult Learning Principles- A set of principles that help identify the different learning tendencies of adult learners. These include- Problem-centered, results-oriented, relevance-oriented, practical, and autonomous (Rothwell, 2008).
Analyst- An individual who employs various methods to accurately identify and define performance problems (Rothwell, 2007).
B
Behavioral Engineering Model- A comprehensive model listing factors that influence performance split into two levels: Environmental supports and the person’s repertory of behavior (Rothwell, 2007).
Behaviorism- Learning theory based in operant conditioning. Learning comes when stimulus elicits a response and that response is either negatively or positively reinforced. According to this theory, learning is an observable process and external (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012).
Brainstorming-A group technique for generating possible solutions or answers by having individuals spontaneously share thoughts and idea. These thoughts are recorded without examination of the relative merits or costs (Rothwell, 2007).
C
Change management- The competencies and work outputs associated implementing of interventions for performance improvement (Rothwell, 2007).
Change Manager- Human performance improvement practitioner role associated with the implementation of the intervention and change management (Rothwell, 2007).
Coercive approach- An approach for managing change that the involves ordering people to accept the change with the overt or implied threat of negative consequences if they do not (Rothwell, 2007).
Cognitive Load Theory- Introduced in John Sweller’s “Implications of Cognitive Load Theory for Multimedia Learning,” this theory presents three types of memory and the process of retaining learning. The theory describes three demands on the learning: the inherent difficulty of learning (intrinsic cognitive load), how information is presented (extraneous cognitive load), and constructing schemas (germane cognitive load). Best practices suggested by this theory involves limiting extraneous cognitive load and promoting germane cognitive load (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012).
Competency Analysis- A human performance technology used to determine whether the skills, knowledge and processes of an individual match those required to perform a given occupation.
Constructivism- This approach to learning is based in the understanding of the learner as an active participant in constructing knowledge. This theory contrasts with behaviorism as an internal process that is contextualized (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012).
Critical Incident Technique-A set of procedures for collecting direct observations of human behavior in such a way as to facilitate their potential usefulness in solving practical problems and developing broad psychological principles (Lipu, 2007).
D
Dick and Carey Model- A design framework for guiding pedagogical practices within the foundational theories of instructional design. Some critics view the framework as prescriptive, while others find that practices are open to interpretation through preferred learning theory, goals, and environment (Dick & Carey, 2015).
Direct Observation- A method to gather firsthand data, processes, or behaviors as part of performance improvement that helps to learn about things that individuals may not be aware of or are unwilling to discuss in interviews or focus groups ("Overview of Qualitative Methods and Analytic Techniques").
E
Evaluator- Human performance improvement practitioner role associated with evaluation and measurement to see if the intended results were achieved (Rothwell, 2007).
Exemplary Performance- Top performance as it occurs at the organization, group, or individual level (Rothwell, 2007).
F
First Leisurely Theorem- Human competence is a function of worthy performance (W), which is a function of the ratio of valuable accomplishments (A) to costly behavior (B) (Gilbert, 1978).
Focus groups- A data collection method that is a group interview that has the advantage of using group dynamics and firsthand insights ("Overview of Qualitative Methods and Analytic Techniques").
Fourth Leisurely Theorem- We can view human accomplishment at several levels of generality, and the values we assign to these accomplishments at each level will be derived from the level just above them (Gilbert, 1978).
Front-end analysis- Careful analysis done before the design of instruction. This may include performance analysis, needs assessment, and job analysis (Dick & Carey, 2015).
G
Gap analysis- The process followed to determine and document the difference between current performance and desired performance.
General systems theory-Set of concepts, facts and terms from multiple systems common to all systems (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012).
H
Human Performance Improvement Analyst- Human performance improvement practitioner role associated with the two performance improvement steps of performance analysis and cause analysis (Rothwell, 2007).
I
Instructional Systems Design- The discipline, process, and science of planning and designing instruction (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012).
Intervention Specialist- Human performance improvement practitioner role associated with selecting the performance improvement interventions or strategies (Rothwell, 2007).
Interviews- A method to gather data on individuals’ perspectives. This method uses interpersonal contact and has the advantage of the ability to follow-up on interesting points. Interviews may be structured or in depth ("Overview of Qualitative Methods and Analytic Techniques").
Ishikawa Diagrams- A visual way to conduct root cause analysis (while leveraging ‘5 Whys’) on multiple potential causes (George, 2005)
J
Job/Task Analysis- The process of gathering, analyzing, and synthesizing descriptions of a single task or job (Dick & Carey, 2015).
K
L
Levels of Vantage-Levels of shared context and purpose within an organization (Gilbert, 1978).
M
Mager and Pipe’s Model- A troubleshooting model that leads the user through a flowchart with different branches and decision points. Unlike other models, it suggests action steps (Rothwell, 2007).
N
Needs Assessment- The process is part of performance analysis to identify the difference between the desired status and the actual status so that a solution can be proposed (Dick & Carey, 2015).
P
Pareto Chart- This cause analysis technique support prioritizing which causes of a performance problem present the most frequent and/or costly concerns. The data is typically visualized through a bar chart. The causes are ordered from most common or costly to least with the length of bars indicating the frequency and/or cost.
Performance Analysis-The process of identifying the organization’s performance requirements and comparing them to its objectives and capabilities (Rothwell, 2007).
Performance Context- The environment and available resources when the learning is using the information and skills learning in instruction (Rothwell, 2007).
Performance Systems Model-An expansion of the performance ABC model (Antecedent conditions, behavior, and consequent event). Antecedents, behaviors and consequences are the three basic components of a behavior. In more complex situations, antecedent conditions are split into two categories: conditions (supports) and directions; consequences are split into two categories: motivational consequences and feedbacks; and the behavior component is just defined as performer (Tosti, 2005).
Persuasive approach- An approach to managing change that uses persuasion by attempting to share an explanation of how the goals of performance improvement align with the individual’s self-interest (Rothwell, 2007).
Potential for Improving Performance (PIP)- The ratio of exemplary performance to typical performance (Gilbert, 1978).
Process flowcharting- A type of diagram that represents an algorithm, workflow or process, showing the steps as boxes of various kinds, and their order by connecting them with arrows. This diagrammatic representation illustrates a solution model to a given problem.
Q
R
Rummler and Broche's Nine Boxes Model- A systematic view of performance improvement over the entire organization. The framework contains three level of performance: organization, process and people levels; and three performance needs: goals, design and management. The organizational level deals with the organization as a whole: its strategy, its overall goals and measures; the process level is where the main work of the organization take place; the people level is where individuals perform. The performance of the organization is determined by the performance of the processes, and the performance of the processes relies on the performance of the people. (Rothwell, 2007).
S
Schema Theory- Knowledge is organized in the long-term memory as packets of information. These packets are called schemas, and they help categorize information. Existing schema filter new information and lower demand on processing capacity when new knowledge fits into an existing schema. (Reiser & Dempsy, 2011).
Second Leisurely Theorem- Typical competence is inversely proportional to the potential for improving performance (PIP) which is the ration of exemplary performance to typical performance. The ration, to be meaningful, must be stated for an identifiable accomplishment, because there is no ‘general quality of competence.’ (Gilbert, 1978).
Social Learning- Learning that takes place with a group or a social situation (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012).
Surveys/Questionnaires- A written instrument for data collection that uses either open-ended or closed questions to identify human performance needs (Rothwell, 2007).
T
Third Leisurely Theorem- For any given accomplishment, a deficiency in performance always has as its immediate cause a deficiency in behavior repertory (P), or in the environment that supports the repertory (E), or both. But its ultimate cause will be found in a deficiency of the management system (Gilbert, 1978).
U
V
W
Worthy Performance- Performance in which the value of the accomplishment exceeds the cost of the behavior (Gilbert, 1978).
X
Y
Z
References
Dick, W., & Carey, L. (2015). The systematic design of instruction. ). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson.
Gilbert, T. F. (1978). Human competence: Engineering worthy performance. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Lipu, S., Williamson, K., Lloyd, A., & Hughes, H. E. (2007). Critical incident technique. Centre for Information Studies, Charles Sturt University.
Reiser, R. & Dempsey, J. (Eds.). (2012).Trends and issues in instructional design and technology). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson.
Rothwell, W. J. (2008). Adult learning basics. Alexandria, Va: ASTD Press.
Rothwell, W. J., Hohne, C.K., & King, S. B. (2007) Human Performance Improvement. Burlington, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Tosti, D. (2005). The big five: The evolution of the performance systems model. Performance Improvement, Volume 44, Issue 9, p. 9-13.
Overview of Qualitative Methods and Analytic Techniques. (n.d.). Retrieved April 23, 2015, from http://www.nsf.gov/pubs/1997/nsf97153/chap_3.htm
Accomplishment- A result or outcome of behaviors (Rothwell, 2007).
ADDIE- Acronym for “Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation”, core components or steps of instructional design. ADDIE or the “ADDIE model” often refers to using a systematic process to design instruction (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012).
Adult Learning Principles- A set of principles that help identify the different learning tendencies of adult learners. These include- Problem-centered, results-oriented, relevance-oriented, practical, and autonomous (Rothwell, 2008).
Analyst- An individual who employs various methods to accurately identify and define performance problems (Rothwell, 2007).
B
Behavioral Engineering Model- A comprehensive model listing factors that influence performance split into two levels: Environmental supports and the person’s repertory of behavior (Rothwell, 2007).
Behaviorism- Learning theory based in operant conditioning. Learning comes when stimulus elicits a response and that response is either negatively or positively reinforced. According to this theory, learning is an observable process and external (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012).
Brainstorming-A group technique for generating possible solutions or answers by having individuals spontaneously share thoughts and idea. These thoughts are recorded without examination of the relative merits or costs (Rothwell, 2007).
C
Change management- The competencies and work outputs associated implementing of interventions for performance improvement (Rothwell, 2007).
Change Manager- Human performance improvement practitioner role associated with the implementation of the intervention and change management (Rothwell, 2007).
Coercive approach- An approach for managing change that the involves ordering people to accept the change with the overt or implied threat of negative consequences if they do not (Rothwell, 2007).
Cognitive Load Theory- Introduced in John Sweller’s “Implications of Cognitive Load Theory for Multimedia Learning,” this theory presents three types of memory and the process of retaining learning. The theory describes three demands on the learning: the inherent difficulty of learning (intrinsic cognitive load), how information is presented (extraneous cognitive load), and constructing schemas (germane cognitive load). Best practices suggested by this theory involves limiting extraneous cognitive load and promoting germane cognitive load (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012).
Competency Analysis- A human performance technology used to determine whether the skills, knowledge and processes of an individual match those required to perform a given occupation.
Constructivism- This approach to learning is based in the understanding of the learner as an active participant in constructing knowledge. This theory contrasts with behaviorism as an internal process that is contextualized (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012).
Critical Incident Technique-A set of procedures for collecting direct observations of human behavior in such a way as to facilitate their potential usefulness in solving practical problems and developing broad psychological principles (Lipu, 2007).
D
Dick and Carey Model- A design framework for guiding pedagogical practices within the foundational theories of instructional design. Some critics view the framework as prescriptive, while others find that practices are open to interpretation through preferred learning theory, goals, and environment (Dick & Carey, 2015).
Direct Observation- A method to gather firsthand data, processes, or behaviors as part of performance improvement that helps to learn about things that individuals may not be aware of or are unwilling to discuss in interviews or focus groups ("Overview of Qualitative Methods and Analytic Techniques").
E
Evaluator- Human performance improvement practitioner role associated with evaluation and measurement to see if the intended results were achieved (Rothwell, 2007).
Exemplary Performance- Top performance as it occurs at the organization, group, or individual level (Rothwell, 2007).
F
First Leisurely Theorem- Human competence is a function of worthy performance (W), which is a function of the ratio of valuable accomplishments (A) to costly behavior (B) (Gilbert, 1978).
Focus groups- A data collection method that is a group interview that has the advantage of using group dynamics and firsthand insights ("Overview of Qualitative Methods and Analytic Techniques").
Fourth Leisurely Theorem- We can view human accomplishment at several levels of generality, and the values we assign to these accomplishments at each level will be derived from the level just above them (Gilbert, 1978).
Front-end analysis- Careful analysis done before the design of instruction. This may include performance analysis, needs assessment, and job analysis (Dick & Carey, 2015).
G
Gap analysis- The process followed to determine and document the difference between current performance and desired performance.
General systems theory-Set of concepts, facts and terms from multiple systems common to all systems (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012).
H
Human Performance Improvement Analyst- Human performance improvement practitioner role associated with the two performance improvement steps of performance analysis and cause analysis (Rothwell, 2007).
I
Instructional Systems Design- The discipline, process, and science of planning and designing instruction (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012).
Intervention Specialist- Human performance improvement practitioner role associated with selecting the performance improvement interventions or strategies (Rothwell, 2007).
Interviews- A method to gather data on individuals’ perspectives. This method uses interpersonal contact and has the advantage of the ability to follow-up on interesting points. Interviews may be structured or in depth ("Overview of Qualitative Methods and Analytic Techniques").
Ishikawa Diagrams- A visual way to conduct root cause analysis (while leveraging ‘5 Whys’) on multiple potential causes (George, 2005)
J
Job/Task Analysis- The process of gathering, analyzing, and synthesizing descriptions of a single task or job (Dick & Carey, 2015).
K
L
Levels of Vantage-Levels of shared context and purpose within an organization (Gilbert, 1978).
M
Mager and Pipe’s Model- A troubleshooting model that leads the user through a flowchart with different branches and decision points. Unlike other models, it suggests action steps (Rothwell, 2007).
N
Needs Assessment- The process is part of performance analysis to identify the difference between the desired status and the actual status so that a solution can be proposed (Dick & Carey, 2015).
P
Pareto Chart- This cause analysis technique support prioritizing which causes of a performance problem present the most frequent and/or costly concerns. The data is typically visualized through a bar chart. The causes are ordered from most common or costly to least with the length of bars indicating the frequency and/or cost.
Performance Analysis-The process of identifying the organization’s performance requirements and comparing them to its objectives and capabilities (Rothwell, 2007).
Performance Context- The environment and available resources when the learning is using the information and skills learning in instruction (Rothwell, 2007).
Performance Systems Model-An expansion of the performance ABC model (Antecedent conditions, behavior, and consequent event). Antecedents, behaviors and consequences are the three basic components of a behavior. In more complex situations, antecedent conditions are split into two categories: conditions (supports) and directions; consequences are split into two categories: motivational consequences and feedbacks; and the behavior component is just defined as performer (Tosti, 2005).
Persuasive approach- An approach to managing change that uses persuasion by attempting to share an explanation of how the goals of performance improvement align with the individual’s self-interest (Rothwell, 2007).
Potential for Improving Performance (PIP)- The ratio of exemplary performance to typical performance (Gilbert, 1978).
Process flowcharting- A type of diagram that represents an algorithm, workflow or process, showing the steps as boxes of various kinds, and their order by connecting them with arrows. This diagrammatic representation illustrates a solution model to a given problem.
Q
R
Rummler and Broche's Nine Boxes Model- A systematic view of performance improvement over the entire organization. The framework contains three level of performance: organization, process and people levels; and three performance needs: goals, design and management. The organizational level deals with the organization as a whole: its strategy, its overall goals and measures; the process level is where the main work of the organization take place; the people level is where individuals perform. The performance of the organization is determined by the performance of the processes, and the performance of the processes relies on the performance of the people. (Rothwell, 2007).
S
Schema Theory- Knowledge is organized in the long-term memory as packets of information. These packets are called schemas, and they help categorize information. Existing schema filter new information and lower demand on processing capacity when new knowledge fits into an existing schema. (Reiser & Dempsy, 2011).
Second Leisurely Theorem- Typical competence is inversely proportional to the potential for improving performance (PIP) which is the ration of exemplary performance to typical performance. The ration, to be meaningful, must be stated for an identifiable accomplishment, because there is no ‘general quality of competence.’ (Gilbert, 1978).
Social Learning- Learning that takes place with a group or a social situation (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012).
Surveys/Questionnaires- A written instrument for data collection that uses either open-ended or closed questions to identify human performance needs (Rothwell, 2007).
T
Third Leisurely Theorem- For any given accomplishment, a deficiency in performance always has as its immediate cause a deficiency in behavior repertory (P), or in the environment that supports the repertory (E), or both. But its ultimate cause will be found in a deficiency of the management system (Gilbert, 1978).
U
V
W
Worthy Performance- Performance in which the value of the accomplishment exceeds the cost of the behavior (Gilbert, 1978).
X
Y
Z
References
Dick, W., & Carey, L. (2015). The systematic design of instruction. ). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson.
Gilbert, T. F. (1978). Human competence: Engineering worthy performance. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Lipu, S., Williamson, K., Lloyd, A., & Hughes, H. E. (2007). Critical incident technique. Centre for Information Studies, Charles Sturt University.
Reiser, R. & Dempsey, J. (Eds.). (2012).Trends and issues in instructional design and technology). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson.
Rothwell, W. J. (2008). Adult learning basics. Alexandria, Va: ASTD Press.
Rothwell, W. J., Hohne, C.K., & King, S. B. (2007) Human Performance Improvement. Burlington, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Tosti, D. (2005). The big five: The evolution of the performance systems model. Performance Improvement, Volume 44, Issue 9, p. 9-13.
Overview of Qualitative Methods and Analytic Techniques. (n.d.). Retrieved April 23, 2015, from http://www.nsf.gov/pubs/1997/nsf97153/chap_3.htm